However, Freud also focused on personality, and some of his ideas are familiar to many people. One of his most fleshed-out theories held that the human mind consists of three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego.
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Studies that have investigated personality change have found an association with subjective well-being measures such as life satisfaction (Boyce et al. 2013; Heller et al. 2007; Specht et al. 2013; vanAken et al. 2006), self-rated health (Berg and Johansson 2014; Magee et al. 2013; Turiano et al. 2012), self-efficacy (Hutteman et al. 2014), psychological turning points (Allemand et al. 2010; Sutin et al. 2010) as well as physical and mental health outcomes (Human et al. 2013; Mroczek and Spiro 2007). Evidence for an association between well-being and personality has been taken to support the social investment perspective on personality development (Roberts and Wood 2006; Roberts et al. 2005) which suggests that committing and successfully adapting to social roles such as marriage and work drives personality development. Whilst the social investment theory considers the effect of societal-determined expectations and goals on personality change, it does not address the importance of striving for authentic, self-concordant goals for personality change. Such a relation forms the basis of an alternative explanation for personality change, proposed by existential and humanistic theories which have not previously been introduced into the contemporary empirical literature on the malleability of personality.
Taken together, the existential and humanistic theories propose that each individual has the freedom and responsibility to transcend the meaninglessness of their existence. Personality change is thought to occur when the individual confronts meaningless in life and has to decide for themselves how to shape their life.Footnote 1 If the individual chooses to strive towards fulfilment, personality is likely to develop in potentially positive ways (i.e., perhaps becoming more open to opportunities or more extraverted) because the individual recognises their capacity to choose their own future and is able to take full advantage of opportunities to find meaning to their existence. Alternatively, if the individual is consumed with feelings of despair and fails to engage with themselves and the world around them to achieve their full potential, this may result in changes in the opposite direction (i.e., becoming less open and more introverted). Associating personality change with changes in such ways of functioning would be part of a theoretical movement from seeing personality change as a biological maturation or social investment process towards seeing such change as part of a holistic development of the person in ways that are right for the individual (existential well-being) (Deci and Ryan 1985, 2000; Joseph and Linley 2005).
The psychodynamic approach has given rise to one of the first talking cure", psychoanalysis, on which many psychological therapies are now based. Psychoanalysis is rarely used now in its original form but it is still used in a shorter version in some cases.The greatest criticism of the psychodynamic approach is that it is unscientific in its analysis of human behavior. Many of the concepts central to Freud's theories are subjective, and as such, difficult to test scientifically.For example, how is it possible to scientifically study concepts like the unconscious mind or the tripartite personality? In this respect, it could be argued that the psychodynamic perspective is unfalsifiable as its theories cannot be empirically investigated.
They propose that there are three central components to personality: basic tendencies (which are the five personality factors), characteristic adaptations, and self-concept (a highly adapted and extensively studied form of characteristic adaptation). The basic tendencies interact with three peripheral components that mark the interface with systems outside personality. There are the biological inputs to the basic tendencies, the external environment, and objective biography (all that a person does and experiences). Connecting all of these components are dynamic processes, such as perception, coping, role playing, reasoning, etc. Although this theory is newer, it does account for one of the most important issues challenging trait theories in general: how does one account for the general consistency of traits, yet the potential for, and occasional observation of, change in personality? Simply, the basic tendencies are consistent, whereas the characteristic adaptations are subject to change, both as a result of dramatic environmental influences and due to changes associated with aging (McCrae & Costa, 2003).
In over 25 years of teaching, it has been my experience that most college students want to believe that adult personality can readily change. Likewise, most psychologists, particularly clinical psychologists helping people to change their dysfunctional lives, want to believe that personality can change. However, trait theorists have repeatedly shown that traits are highly resistant to change once adulthood has been reached (see, e.g., Costa & McCrae, 1989; McCrae & Costa, 2003). This is particularly true for Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness, for both men and women, and for Blacks and Whites. While Costa and McCrae acknowledge that individuals sometimes change dramatically, as a general rule, consistency is clearly more important. They also suggest that this should be an opportunity for optimism. As individuals age, they should not fear becoming a different person, such as someone isolated or depressed. If, however, an individual of younger age is isolated, depressed, or suffers from some other psychological malady, they should also realize that time or aging alone is not likely to change them, but rather, psychotherapy may be a desirable and effective course of action. Once again, Costa & McCrae emphasize the newness of these theories, and suggest the need for systematic prospective studies of the Five-Factor Theory over the entire adult lifespan. Fortunately, the NEO-PI-R provides the tool necessary to evaluate the Five-Factor Theory throughout life and in different cultures. Given the steady increase in life expectancy in Western societies, and the growing percentage of elderly people within our society, this research is likely to become a priority in the field of personality. 2ff7e9595c
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